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Unit.B.7.4.
Harassment/Stalking
Australia |
focus
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| "In
the last decade stalking has emerged as
a significant social problem, which now constitutes
a specific form of criminal offence in most English-speaking
nations. This paper examines why stalking has
become a major social problem and why it should be of
particular concern to mental health professionals. Method:
Using the extant literature, the history of the emergence
of stalking as social, legal and behavioural
science discourses is presented. An attempt is made
to understand the social and cultural forces which shaped
our current understanding of the phenomenon of stalking.
Results: Stalking flourishes in a variety
of contexts; the social conditions conducive to such
behaviour include greater instability in intimate relationships,
a culture of blame and entitlement and a growing social
anxiety that emphasizes vulnerability to crime and suspicion
regarding the intentions of strangers. Stalking
is now an established category whose utility is in directing
social, legal and health energies to support victims
and relieve stalkers of their burden of
pursuit. Conclusions: Stalking is a curious
construction born of a range of tensions in contemporary
culture but has proved to be a useful label and a useful
concept. In part due to the emergence of the concept
of stalking, laws are now available to
protect, and services increasingly geared to support,
the victims of persistent harassment (Mullen, Pathé
& Purcell, 2001, p. 9). |
Canada |
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"Part 1
of a two part paper on stalking outlines the behaviors involved,
epidemiology, motivation of the offenders, and mental health
consequences for the victims:
- Up to 1 in
20 women in the US will be stalked in her lifetime.
- The majority
of victims are female, while the offenders are usually
male.
- Stalking
behaviours range from surveillance to threatening aggressive
or violent acts.
- The majority
of stalking is related to failed intimate relationships.
- Stalkers may
also suffer from erotomania or obsessive love with a primary
psychiatric diagnosis. Victims may experience anxiety,
depression guilt, helplessness, and symptoms of post-traumatic
e stress disorder" (PTSD) (Abrams & Robinson,
1998, p. 473).
"Stalking
is a serious offence perpetrated by disturbed offenders.
Stalking can cause major mental health consequences, which
are often poorly understood by society" (Abrams &
Robinson, 1998, p. 473).
"Publicity
about celebrity stalking cases, such as those involving
Madonna or David Letterman, has raised public awareness
of this problem, and helped lead to anti-stalking legislation
in the United States. The extensive media coverage of the
OJ Simpson murder case has also focused public attention
on the kind of behaviour seen in criminal harassment cases
involving ex-spouses. The fact remains however that the
majority of stalking cases involves "ordinary people"
who are usually women" (Abrams & Robinson, 1998,
p. (June, mid, 2002).
"The 2nd
part of the paper reviewing the topic of stalking focuses
on victims difficulties with the legal system and the psychotherapeutic
tasks for victims and therapists" (Abrams & Robinson,
1998, p. 477).
"Victims
suffer emotional consequences from being stalked. Additional
stress is caused by the legal systems' lack of understanding
of the causes and consequences of stalking and inadequate
and unenforced laws. The treatments for victims requires
a comprehensive approach including education, supportive
psychotherapy, and discussion of practical measures. Therapists
may over-identify with a patients powerlessness, or hesitate
to take on a case for fear of the stalker. Female therapists
may protect themselves against the realization of their
own vulnerability by blaming the victim, while male therapists
may feel defensive of or overprotective" (Abrams &
Robinson, 1998, p. 477).
"Stalking
is a crime with major mental health consequences which is
often poorly understood by society. Therapists need to be
aware of the victims emotional reactions, the types of legal
and practical supports available and the possible biases
of society. Further education and research is encouraged"
(Abrams & Robinson, 1998, p. 477).
"The Grange
Inquiry was set up by an order-in-council, of the Ontario
Government on April 21, 1983, for two purposes: to investigate
how and by what means 36 children died in cardiac wards
in 4A and 4B at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto,
between July 1, 1980 and March 31, 1981 and to inquire into
the police investigation arising out of the mysterious circumstances
at the Hospital. Nurse Susan Nelles, had been arrested on
March 23, 1991, for the murder of Baby Justin Cook, at the
Toronto Sick Children's Hospital. Nelles was forced to spend
time in jail before she was completely cleared and discharged
on May 21, 1982, for lack of evidence" (Hardingham,
1998, p. 23).
"The courts
have recognized two forms of sexual harassment: "quid
pro quo" and "environmental harassment. The latter
is also often described as a "poisoned" or a "hostile
environment"" (Hardingham, 1998, p. 14).
"Nurses
are especially prone to underreport abuse for many reasons:
- nurse's toleration
of abuse linked with the conviction that it is "part
of the job" (Portlock, 1993, p. 5);
- the time
and effort involved in completing a report;
- the victims'
conviction that he or she is somehow to blame for the
incident, or that the incidence is the result of poor
job performance or other personal shortcoming" (Hardingham,
1998, p. 14).
1. "Incident
reports are frequently framed to demand what the victim
could have done to prevent the incident, thereby suggesting
blame" (Hardingham, 1998, p. 15).
2. "The
current thinking is that sexual harassment is characterized
as primarily the manifestation of power, rather than sexual
attraction (Frank et al, 1998, p. 356) and it is speculated
that the profession of medicine in academic settings may
be especially prone to harassment, because of the importance
of hierarchy" (Hardingham, 1998, p. 15).
3. "Teasing
or taunting that is demeaning or intimidating, physical
threats or verbal abuse, could result is a poisoned environment"
(Hardingham, 1998, p. 15).
International |
focus
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Insert forensic
focus points here
United Kingdom |
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"Stalking
has given rise to considerable media interest
and public concern throughout the 1990s. The England
and Wales Protection from Harassment Act 1997 was
introduced to legislate against the crime, but failed
to define it. This article discusses the difficulties
of defining a crime in which the behaviour of perpetrators
is often ostensibly innocuous. Arguments. A review
of 12 studies reveals that stalkers engage in very
similar patterns of activities. Consequently, it may
be possible to create guidelines for what does and
does not constitute stalking. Next, a simple method
of constructing stalker typologies is suggested, the
classification being affected by the manner in which
stalking is defined. Conclusions. It is suggested
that the difficulties inherent in framing anti-stalking
legislation may have been overestimated and
that existing academic research can provide at least
a working definition of the crime, provided that a
common system of classifying stalking cases
is adopted" (Sheridan & Davies, 2001. p.
133.).
"This
paper sets out the brief history of the Tarasoff case
and highlights the main issues for practitioners"
(Mason, 1998, p. 109).
"For
psychiatric nurses the issues that pertaining to this
case affects the everyday working practice of those
working with patients, who are one stage or another,
threaten the welfare of others. This in much the same
case for forensic psychiatric nurses as for general
psychiatric nurses, and indeed any nurse that received
a threat regarding a third party from a patient"
(Mason, 1998, p. 109).
"Three
types of stalkers are identified in this crime classification
are the non domestic stalker (delusional) who may
know the target through social contact or from a random
meeting in a public place; the domestic stalker (a
mix of non delusional and delusional behavior) who
may be known to the target and had a close personal
relationship with the target and the erotomania stalker
(delusional) whose target is typically a public figure"
(Wright et al, 1995, p. 38).
"Stalking
is conceptualized from a continuum of non-delusional
to delusional behavior" (Wright et al, 1995,
p. 38).
"Classification
of crime is the first step in the investigation process
figure" (Wright et al, 1995, p. 38).
"Stalking
crimes are motivated primarily by interpersonal aggression
rather than by material gain or sex. The purpose of
stalking resides in the mind of the stalker who are
compulsive individuals with a misperceived fixation.
Stalking is the result of an underlying emotional
conflict that propels the offender to stalk and harass
a target figure" (Wright et al, 1995, p. 38).
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United States |
focus
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Insert forensic
focus points here
Focus Points
Reference
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Abrams,
K.M.& Robinson, G. E. (1998). Stalking Part I:
An overview of the problem. Canadian Journal of
Psychiatry, 43, 473-476.
Abrams,
K.M.& Robinson, G. E. (1998). Stalking Part II:
Victims problems with the legal system, and therapeutic
conversations. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,
43, 477-481.
Hardingham,
L. (1998). Sexual harassment: Being aware of its most
subtle form. Alberta RN, 54 (9), 14-15.
Mason,
T. (1998). Tarasoff liability: Its impact for working
with patients who threaten others. International
Journal of Nursing Studies, 35, 109-114.
Mullen,
P. E. & Pathé, M. & Purcell, R. (2001).
Stalking: new constructions of human behaviour. Australian
& New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35(1),
9-16. Retrieved December 31, 2002, from Academic Search
Premier database:
http://search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=5470475&db=aph
Sheridan,
L., & Davies, G. M. (2001). Stalking: The elusive
crime. Legal & Criminological Psychology, 6(2),
133-147. Retrieved December 31, 2002, from Academic
Search Premier database: http://search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=6388841&db=aph
Wright,
J. A., Burgess, A.G., Burgess, A.W., McCrary, G.O.,
& Douglas, J.E. (1995). Investigating stalking
crimes. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental
Health Services, 33 (9), 38-43.
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Topic
B - Forensic Issues > Section B.7.0. Forensic Issues > Unit.B.7.4.
Harassment/Stalking
