From New Currents 2.1 January 1995

Designing multimedia
educational programs

Dr. Antonio R. Bartolome
Director of Educational Technology Services
University of Barcelona
Editor's note: Antonio R. Bartolome was a visiting scholar at The University of Calgary, from September to December 1994. This article outlines some of the work done by his research team in Barcelona and related research by other scholars.
When faced with technical problems, you can lose the all-important focus on the design of multimedia programs from an educational perspective. Philip Barker (1989) says, "Before effective and efficient courseware can be produced, a variety of different types of design and fabrication guidelines are needed. . . . These guidelines usually embed the accumulated experience of practitioners who are actively involved in developing and using instructional software. Guidelines may take the form of a collection of basic theories and models. . . ." (p. 180.) Two major models guiding the design of educational programs are: programs which provide the user with information, and programs which generate learning, through exercises, questions, and other activities which provide knowledge, develop skills, or change attitudes. In our taxonomy, we have used four sub-models or Information Presentation Programs models: We considered four Learning Activities Program models:

Information Presentation Programs

Although an Information Presentation Program can be designed to aid the learning process, it will always only be an informative program. Actual learning is produced not by the program's design, but by the student's use of the program. An Information Presentation Program is controlled by the user, not by the system, as is the case with Learning Activities Programs. Of course, there are exceptions, such as the Intelligent Programs which help the user to access needed information. I would like to note the differences in design between electronic multimedia books, database multimedia programs, and hypermedia programs. In the case of an electronic multimedia book, the information is organized in a linear way. For easier use, the information is fragmented, structured, and several access paths are defined. In the case of a database multimedia program, the information is organized in records and fields. It is a classified group of structured information units with several access pathways defined. In the case of hypermedia, information is divided in several chunks, with multiple links connecting the chunks. For the user, the Multimedia Book is used to follow information; the data base is used to get information; and hypermedia is used to navigate or explore information. The designer's point of view is as follows. In the case of the Multimedia Book, the designer develops a well-structured linear script with parts and units. It is important to design different indexes. In the Multimedia Database, the designer must prepare the general structure in advance, that is, the fields or aspects to fill (structure before information.) Later, the designer will collect and record the information units, information that is usually classified and sorted according to fields or aspects. With the Hypermedia program, the designer builds structure and information, the framework and the words (or pictures) simultaneously. The designer can use an existing database.

Learning Activities Programs

Practice

Programs which develop skills by means of practice and repetition are included in this category. They are based on Behaviourist Learning Theory. While these programs have proved to be efficient in the past, current thinking is oriented towards other educational aims. Learning Activities programs are adequate for simple skills, and they are good introductory steps to complex simulations. However, the distinction between practice and simulation programs is not always clear; the videodisc-based program produced by the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, the College of Veterinary Medicine, and the Department of Educational Media, College of Education, of the University of Auburn (USA) is one example. This laserdisc includes movies of normal and abnormal heart cycles accompanied by their respective stethoscope sounds. First-year veterinary students can therefore be trained in auscultation without hurting animals.

Tutorial

This model is classic in computer-based training. It originated from Programmed Training, but has evolved to more complex configurations. The basic design includes the presentation of a small bit of information, followed by an activity to be resolved by the subject. This activity is simply a question that the student must answer. The general frameworks used are either a linear model, in which every subject follows the same path, or a branched model, in which different subjects follow different paths. An interesting variation on this design, described by Murray et al. (1990), is a program which attempts to correct misconceptions about physics through a network of situations. Each situation includes a type of misconception. The Tutorial model is suited for acquiring knowledge, for comprehension, and for retaining information. For some time, attempts have been made to produce intelligent tutorials. Currently, the trend is to link Artificial Intelligence modules to the tutorials for quick and easy authoring.

Problem solving

Programs of this kind are simple in design but complex in conception. The system shows a problem to the subject; the subject uses a number of different resources and tries to solve the problem. The subject can ask for information to explore possibilities, can put experiments into practice, or can access external databases. Note that the problem itself is not important. In fact, the problem may not have any relation to the training content; however, it may act as an incentive for the subject to pursue problem solving. The objective of this type of program is the acquisition of deep knowledge by means of information analysis, synthesis, application, and evaluation. Another objective is the development of significant information-searching skills. These programs are founded on Constructivist Learning Theory.

Simulation

The success of Simulation Multimedia Programs can be explained because of their relatively low cost (compared to flight simulators) and their relatively high realism level (compared to pen and paper games.) Simulations and video games are not a substitute for real practice, but they serve as good preparation for reality. The educational aims of simulation are the development of complex skills and decision making. Different models have been proposed for use in designing simulation programs. Some include using tools for specific elements (Towne et al., 1990; Schank, 1990.) At this moment we are working with a general model which includes the following four elements: Simulations appear not to have limits. Dans le Quartier St. Gervais, Athena Language Learning Projects, (Hodges and Sasnett, 1993) allows the user to visit a Paris Quarter and to speak with its residents. Of course, there are some program restrictions. The key of the design is in these restrictions. The videodisc Navigation (Digital Equipment Corporation) includes simulation of boat and car movements. In the first situation, the restrictions affect the area and the frequency of detection regarding movement, but there are no limits with regard to direction. In the second situation, the area and the frequency are larger, but restrictions in the direction are implemented accordingly.

Conclusion

While this is not an exhaustive classification or a complete description of models, it can help one to conceptualize "Courseware Engineering", as described by De Diana and Schaik (1993.) We have found that it is also an efficient way to help our students to understand and to begin to design Multimedia Learning Programs. This taxonomy is being used in the construction of a new more robust taxonomy based upon the study of 50 multimedia projects in North America.

References

Barker, P. (1989). Authoring for DELTA. ETTI, 26 (3), 175-185.
Bartolome A (1992). Interactive Levels and Cognitive Styles: The Problem of Design. Learning Resources Journal, 8 (3), 63-69.
De Diana I and Schaik P (1993). Courseware Engineering Outlined: an Overview of Some Research Issues. ETTI, 30 (3), 191-211.
Hodges M and Sasnett R (1993). Multimedia Computing. Reading (Ma): Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Murray T et Al. (1990). An analogy-Based Computer Tutor for Remediating Physics Misconceptions. Interactive Learning Environments, 1 (2), 79-101.
Schank R (1990). Case-Based Teaching: Four Experiences in Educational Software Design. Interactive Learning Environments, 1 (4), 231-253.
Towne D et al. (1990). Model-Building Tools for Simulation-Based Training. Interactive Learning Environments, 1 (1), 33-50.
Woodhead N (1990). Hypertext and Hypermedia. Wilmslow: Sigma Press.