Acoma Pueblo Society - Lying 89 kilometres west-southwest of Albuquerque, New Mexico, Acoma is known as the "Sky City." Its inhabitants live in terraced dwellings made of stone and adobe atop a sandstone butte 109 metres high. Believed to be the oldest continuously inhabited place in this area of the United States (since the 10th century C.E.), it was described by the conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado in 1540 as the strongest defensive position in the world. The pueblo's name comes from the Keresan Indian language: ako meaning "white rock" and ma, "people." About 5 kilometres northeast is the Enchanted Mesa, another butte rising 130 metres above the surrounding plain, which is believed by the Acoma Indians to be the dwelling place of their nature gods. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

 American Civil War (1861 - 1865) - the conflict between the United States' federal government and the federal government of the United States and 11 Southern states that asserted their right to secede from the Union. Although hostilities did not break out until 1861, there had been growing tensions between the Northern and Southern states over such issues as slavery, trade, tariffs, and the doctrine of the state's rights. After Abraham Lincoln, the candidate of the antislavery Republican Party, was elected president in late 1860, the tensions resulted in the secession, or formal withdrawal, of first South Carolina, then Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina from the Union of the United States. After the eruption of hostilities in Charleston, South Carolina, both sides began raising armies. Although the Confederates, as the secessionists were known, were initially victorious, the Unionists had command of more than twice the population and had greater advantages in manufacturing and transportation that the Confederates. The North ultimately achieved victory in the American Civil War, preserving the Union, abolishing slavery and granting citizenship to freed slaves. The victory also paved the way for the political and economic rise of the Northern states, which became increasingly urbanised. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Andrews, Charles Freer - (1871 - 1940) pushed for the end to indentured labour on the plantations by launching a personal campaign to make others aware of the necessity for immediate action. A co-worker of Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa, C. F. Andrews contacted him in India with his findings in an effort to increase awareness within India. Andrews also travelled to Australia and Fiji, alerting missionary organisations to the evils of the system. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Anglican Church - a loosely organised family of religious bodies closely related to the Church of England, one of the major branches of the16th-century Protestant Reformation. The religion is a distinct form of Christianity in that it includes features of both Protestantism and Catholicism. Traditional worship and structure is valued, but it operates autonomously and flexibly in different areas. Anglicans possess few firm rules but maintain devotion and procedural loyalties. The Book of Common Prayer, a compilation of the church's liturgical forms originally issued in the 16th century, represented the achievement of autonomy from the Catholic Church in Rome and remains the hallmark of Anglican identity. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

asiento - also known as the asiento de negros (Spanish: "Negroes' contract"), the asiento was used from the early 16th to the mid-18th centuries C.E. and was an agreement between the Spanish crown and a private person or another sovereign power by which the latter was granted a monopoly in supplying African slaves for the Spanish colonies in the Americas. The contractor (asentista) agreed to pay a certain amount of money to the crown for the monopoly and to deliver a stipulated number of male and female slaves for sale in the New World markets. Until the 18th century individual Spaniards, as well as Portugal, France, and Great Britain, entered into such contracts. In spite of heavy taxation, government interference, and unsettled trade conditions, all of which greatly curtailed the profitability of asientos, foreign powers sought the contracts because they provided the chance, however slim, to amass some of the gold and silver bullion produced by the slave trade. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Aztecs - The Aztecs arose relatively late in the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica, moving into the Valley of Mexico in the early twelfth century C.E. They were one of several migratory peoples who arrived in the Valley at this time. In relation to other groups in the area, the Aztecs were politically weak, yet aggressive and determined to maintain their identity as a unique group. They were subjected to several centuries of military harassment before they fled to the swamps of Lake Texcoco, where they established a permanent settlement, Tenochtitlan, around 1325. Over time, the Aztecs were able to advance within the society of the Valley of Mexico, using diplomacy, alliance, and marriage. In the early fifteenth century they were powerful enough to embark upon a campaign of long-term military and economic conquest. They were able to quickly gain control of a number of cities and minor states, and Tenochtitlan became their capital, swelling to over 200,000 inhabitants in the sixteenth century. It was said that up to 60,000 people gathered at the markets of Tenochtitlan every day. The city was an early masterpiece of urban design, with six major canals running through it, on which 200,000 canoes provided transportation for the inhabitants of the city. It was organised into sixty or seventy wards, and large residential areas surrounded the centre. It was built on an island in Lake Texcoco, and three causeways connected the city with the mainland. As time went on, the Aztec state became more and more rigid, with a highly stratified class system. The king became a virtual deity, and had almost unlimited powers. The society as a whole spent much time and effort in appeasing the gods of rain and war, Tlaloc and Huizilopochtli. Their continued benevolence was assured only through perpetual human sacrifices. Despite the increasing overdevelopment of the nobility, which caused Aztec society to become top-heavy, they were the single most important and dominant group in Mesoamerica at the time of Spanish conquest in 1519. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Beothuk - a First Nations group of hunters and gatherers that resided on the island of Newfoundland. Little is known of Beothuk culture. The people were apparently divided into small bands of a few related families, each band having its own leader. Their skill as canoeists was noted by many early writers; they hunted seals and fished for salmon and shellfish. They also hunted deer and harvested birch bark for cooking, housing, and for boats. When the Europeans first made contact with the Beothuk in 1497, the tribe probably numbered no more than 500 persons. The Beothuk were nearly eradicated by Europeans and European diseases and by Micmac hunters crossing from Nova Scotia in succeeding centuries. A few survivors may have escaped to Labrador and intermarried with the Montagnais people, but the last known Beothuk, Nancy Shawanadith, died in 1829. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Beringia - During the last ice age, extensive glaciation locked up much of the Earth's water as ice, causing sea levels to drop by as much as 100 metres. Some of the exposed land linked Siberia with North America, forming a land bridge known as Beringea. During this period, the Wisconsin glaciation was characterised by two significant advances of ice, separated by a relatively ice-free interval. This ice free interval ended approximately 25,000 years ago, and it is generally believed that migrations to North America occurred during the second period of heavy glaciation. Beringea was submerged by rising sea levels at the end of the ice age, approximately 14,000 years ago. Geographically, it was an extension of the low steppe and tundra of Siberia. This dry and extremely windy plain had short, warm summers and long, cold winters. It was populated by big-game grass eating mammals such as mammoths, wild horses, and musk oxen. It was a harsh climate, but not one that made survival impossible. This bridge is now submerged, and a narrow stretch of ocean, the Bering Straits, separates Russia from Alaska. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Bracero Program - a system admitting Mexican labourers to the United States, especially for seasonal contract labour in agricultural occupations. The term 'bracero' originated in the 1920s and is derived from the Spanish 'brazo', meaning arm, and from the Latin 'bracchium'. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

buccaneers - English, French, or Dutch sea adventurers, who preyed on Spanish ships and settlements in the Caribbean and eastern South America. The term buccaneer comes from the French 'boucan', a grill for the smoking of viande boucanée, or dried meat, for use in ships at sea. The earliest buccaneers were hunters in western Hispaniola (Haiti) in the early 17th century. From there the buccaneers spread to the island of Tortuga, where the French governors were liberal in issuing commissions for attacks on Spanish maritime trade. After its capture by the English in 1655, Jamaica also provided a secure base for their illegal activities. The French called their adventurers 'flibustiers' (from the Dutch 'vrijbuiter', 'freebooter'), and the Dutch called theirs 'zeerovers' ('sea rovers'). The Spaniards called them 'corsarios' ('corsairs'). Early buccaneers were usually escaped servants, former soldiers, or logwood cutters from the Campeche coast (southern Mexico). The buccaneers influenced the founding of the abortive Scottish colony at Darién, on the Isthmus of Panama (1698), and the foundation of the South Sea Company, as well as inspiring later and more serious voyages of exploration in the Pacific by the publicity garnered by their writings. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Cardinal Richelieu - (1585 - 1642) Armand-Jean du Plessis, cardinal and Duke of Richelieu, became the chief minister to King Louis XIII of France from 1624 to 1642. His major goals were the establishment of royal absolutism in France and the end of Spanish-Habsburg hegemony in Europe. The political threat posed by the religious dissent of the Huguenots, who had a considerable military force at their disposal, was initially tolerated. When the Huguenot community was drawn into the larger political intrigues of the Protestant magnates, Richelieu laid siege in 1628 to La Rochelle, the Huguenot centre. The Huguenots were defeated, and the Peace of Alès was signed on June 28, 1629. The Huguenots were allowed to retain their freedom of conscience but lost all their military advantages. The seizure by Spain in 1635 of the archbishop of Trier, who was under French protection, led to France's alignment with the Protestant powers in the Thirty Years' War. Although this alignment was seen by contemporaries as a betrayal of the Catholic Church by one of its own princes, Richelieu remained orthodox in his views on the relationship between church and state and resisted the Gallican challenge to the absolutism of papal authority. Both as statesman and churchman, Richelieu was the acknowledged architect of France's greatness in the 17th century and a contributor to the secularisation of international politics during the Thirty Years' War. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

caste - a group of people having a distinct social rank, as defined primarily through birth, occupation, and marriage. The word caste comes from the Portuguese and Spanish casta, meaning "race," "breed," or "lineage", and was first applied to Indian society by Portuguese travellers in the 16th century. Although the system exists in other areas, it is the most prevalent in India, where there are about 3,000 castes and more than 25,000 subcastes, with membership ranging from several hundred to millions of individuals. Each caste has its own customs that delineate the occupations and dietary habits of its members, as well as their social contacts with members of other castes. These castes are grouped loosely into four 'varnas', or classes, with the Brahmans (scholars and priests) occupying the highest social position. The Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), the Vaishyas (merchants, traders, and farmers), and the Sudras (artisans, labourers, servants, and slaves) complete the hierarchy, with the Harijan, or "untouchable" caste occupying the lowest social position. (use browser's 'back' button to return)  

chain migration - That movement in which prospective migrants learn of opportunities, are provided with transportation, and have initial accommodation and employment provided through contacts with previous migrants, particularly family and friends. Within a country, chain migration often refers to the phenomenon where the migrants move relatively short distances, but as people move from area B to A, migrants from area C move into B, and migrants from area D move into C, and so on. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Charles II of Spain - (1661 - 1700) King of Spain from 1665 to 1700, Charles was the last monarch of the Spanish Hapsburg dynasty. Early in his reign, the king, also known as "the mad" became concerned with the expansionist policies of Louis XIV of France, a situation that ended with the signing of the Treaty of Rijswijk in 1697. Because the king did not have an heir, the last three years of his reign were increasingly taken up with the issue of who was to succeed him. France, England, and the Netherlands each had claims to his empire, and although Succession and the eventual sectioning of his holdings. Although Charles wished to maintain the integrity of his empire, upon his death the many claims led to the War of the Spanish Succession. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Clovis projectile points - Clovis projectile points are part of the distinctive hunting technology common on the Great Plains around 11,500 years ago. Clovis spear-heads were made from a rare, fine-grained rock that occurred in widely separated outcrops. The stone was used to make these delicately pressure-flaked projectile points, which were fitted onto spear shafts. Knowledge of the Clovis people has mainly come from kill sites in the west of North America. When a spear penetrated an animal, the point would break off, allowing the spear to be fitted with a new point very quickly. If the old point could be recovered after the animal was killed, it could be re-sharpened and used again. The game hunted by the Clovis people usually consisted of bison and mammoth, as well as smaller animals. They also gathered wild vegetables. Most scholars believe that the Clovis people, who provide the earliest solid archaeological evidence of human habitation of North America, were continuing the big-game hunting traditions developed in north-east Asia. It is quite possible that the distinctive style of the Clovis projectile points themselves was a development that occurred in North America, but it was probably a continuation of technologies that arose across the Pacific. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Code Noir - Louis XIV instituted the Code Noir in 1685 in an attempt to regulate and control the rights, use, and treatment of slaves in the French colonies. One aspect of the law was the mandate that all African slaves be Baptised and converted to the Catholic religion. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

conquest - The reasons behind the success of the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs and surrounding Amerindian nations are varied and complex. Certainly, the conquest itself was sudden and dramatic, bringing about a rapid change in society, economics, and worldview for thousands of individuals. Its causes, however, were in some cases not sudden or isolated at all, but were more long-term. The obvious military superiority of the Spanish, with their firearms, horses, and organised military structures, had an immediate and devastating impact upon indigenous peoples. The nations of Mesoamerica were also not used to fighting wars with the aim of decimating one’s opponent. Most wars fought before the arrival of the Spanish had been tribute wars, fought to obtain captives for labour or sacrifice. The wars of Europe were fought in order to destroy the enemy so they were unable to fight again. This differing mentality regarding conflict caught the Amerindians off guard, giving the Europeans an immediate advantage. However, the conquest cannot be explained by this alone as indigenous groups quickly readjusted, regrouped, and continued to resist.

Amerindian societies were diverse, both culturally and linguistically. This diversity hindered both communication and military co-operation, as old hostilities inhibited trust and differing languages restricted information exchange. Additionally, many of these societies were governed by a ruling elite that presided over a vast population of peasants. Once the elite had been conquered, there was often little local resistance from the rest of the population, who had neither the means nor the incentive to continue. In this sense, the conquest merely resulted in a replacement of the ruling class.

There were further factors that allowed the Spanish to conquer Mesoamerica so easily. The Amerindians were uncertain as to the motives and identities of the Europeans, remaining neutral or defensive in the initial stages of contact. In the context of Aztec history and religion, the arrival of the Spanish could have been interpreted as the return of an ancient deity, or as divine punishment for the Aztec rulers.

Disease played a role in demoralising the Amerindians of the region. Smallpox and measles quickly spread from the Caribbean to the mainland, and continued to sweep through the continent. In many areas, European disease arrived before the Europeans themselves, wiping out up to fifty per cent of the population. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

conversos - From the Spanish word, meaning "converted", the term refers to those Spanish Jews in the late 14th and early 15th centuries who adopted the Christian religion when faced with severe persecution or expulsion from Spain as the alternatives to their conversion. In spite of their conversion, many Christians still regarded the group as Jewish, as they remained living in Jewish communities and held occupations traditionally help by the Spanish Jewish people. Because of this conversos were often regarded as a subversive force within the church, and laws which were discriminatory to anyone with Jewish ancestry were implemented. For example, conversos could not hold any public or ecclesiastical office, nor could they testify against Spanish Christians in courts of law. These laws were not modified in Spain until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

coolie - a term used by Europeans to describe an unskilled labourer, usually in or from Asia, hired for low or subsistence wages and under contract to his or her employer. Although the term was originally used to describe workers from China, the meaning broadened over time to include any Asian performing unskilled labour, whether under contract or not. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Covenanters - any of the Scottish Presbyterians who at various times during the 17th century pledged themselves to bonds or covenants to maintain their chosen forms of church government and worship. The Covenanter army took part in the English Civil War against Charles I, however they then fought for the king when he agreed to the Solemn League and Covenant in 1647. They fought later for Charles II, who signed the covenant in 1650, however in both cases they were defeated by English forces. Although the religious settlement forced upon Scotland by the new Commonwealth did not satisfy the more rigorous Presbyterians, the restoration of the English monarchy in 1660 proved much worse. The policy of Charles II led to the persecution of the covenanters, as all legal sanctions of Presbyterianism were removed and all covenants denounced as unlawful. Resistance by covenanters continued for twenty-five years, and rebellions in 1666, 1679, and 1685 were harshly suppressed by the English. Presbyterian Church government was re-established after the English Revolution of 1688, however the covenants were not renewed. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Cromwell, Oliver - (1599 - 1658) A member of the lesser gentry, Cromwell was elected to the Parliament in 1640 and found himself among individuals who, like him, were dissatisfied with the monarchy over such issues as taxes and monopolies, but it was on the grounds of religion that Cromwell most opposed the Crown. In the widening gulf between the Parliament and King Charles I, Cromwell began distinguishing himself as an able organiser and leader. When civil war broke out in 1642, Cromwell obtained permission from the House of Commons to allow his constituency of Cambridge to form companies for its defence, and enlisted a troop of cavalry in Huntingdon. During 1643 Cromwell became more widely known as a military organiser and fighter. His troops were well organised and disciplined, and he was made a colonel that same year. After a series of successful battles, he was able to convince the House of Commons to create a new army in order to take the offensive. He was appointed second in command of this army in 1644. In 1645 Charles I's last two field armies fell, but the King's escape to Scotland in 1648 renewed hostilities and Cromwell once again proved his military prowess. Charles I was again defeated and in 1649 was beheaded. Cromwell became Lord Protector of England, and launched a cruelly punitive campaign into Ireland to dispossess the Catholics. Opinions of Cromwell are greatly varied. For example, although he favoured religious toleration, he actually tolerated only Jews and non-Anglican Protestants, and engaged in the massacre of several Irish Catholic strongholds. His military achievements and organisational abilities are recognised, but so too are his cruelty and intolerance as a leader. Upon his death in 1658, Cromwell was succeeded by his son, Richard, but the Protectorate soon collapsed and the Commonwealth restored in 1660. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Curzon, George Nathaniel, Marquess, Viscount Scarsdale, Baron Ravensdale- (1859 - 1925) a British statesman, viceroy of India from 1898 to1905, and foreign secretary from1919 to 1924. He was the youngest viceroy of India in history and during his terms in office he played a significant role in British policy-making. In 1886 Curzon became a member of Parliament, but took some time and embarked on a world tour, returning to England with a fascination for Asia. In 1891, Curzon accepted the position of under secretary of state for India in the Tory government, and began a swift rise to political power. In 1898 he succeeded Lord Elgin as viceroy of India, and later that year he was created Baron Curzon of Kedleston. Although as viceroy he demanded obedience from Indian rulers and provincial governors, Curzon initiated commissions of inquiry into education, police, and civil services in India, as well as reducing taxes and ordering the punishment of any British citizen who ill-treated Indian nationals. He was also heavily involved in India's external affairs and frontiers, frustrating Russian ambitions in the area of Tibet, as well as India's artistic and cultural heritage, ordering the restoration of the decaying Taj Mahal. His success prompted the English government to renew his term, however his appointment of Lord Kitchener of Karthoum to the position of commander in chief of the Indian army and military member of the viceroy's Cabinet proved disastrous, as the two men clashed repeatedly, resulting in Curzon's resignation in 1905 and his return home. After a brief respite from politics, he joined the coalition cabinet of H.H. Asquith in 1915, soon becoming the leader of the House of Lords with the office of lord president. From then on Curzon was one of the members of the inner Cabinet which was concerned with the policies and actions of World War I. Curzon was appointed foreign secretary In the postwar government led by Lloyd George, but it wasn't until 1922 that he came into possession of the full powers of his office, having been constantly overruled and pushed aside by George. He served with distinction until 1924, painstakingly dealing with the chaotic problems of postwar Europe and the Near East. On March 9, 1925, he was operated on for an internal condition, however less than two weeks later he died of complications. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

debt peonage - form of involuntary servitude, originating with the Spanish conquest of Mexico. The term refers more specifically to those workers in the United States who were under contract to pay their creditors in labour. The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution and congressional legislation after the American Civil War prohibited such involuntary servitude in the United States, linking the practice with slavery, however the former slaveholding states of the South enacted certain legislation to make labour compulsory. Under these state laws, employers could induce or deceive individuals, especially freed slaves who often had few prospects resources of their own, into signing contracts for labour to pay their debts. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

doubling time - The doubling time of a population is the amount of time (usually years) that it takes a population to increase to two times its amount. It is usually dependent on the difference between the birth rate and death rate. For example, a population with a high birth rate and/or low death rate would double in a fairly short period, perhaps twenty-five years. A population with a lower birth rate and/or higher death rate would double much more slowly, up to fifty years. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

du Casse, Jean-Baptiste - appointed by Louis XIV to the post of governor of Saint-Domingue in 1691, du Casse proved to be a remarkable empire builder for the France. More than any other individual of his generation, du Casse contributed to the development of the French slave trade. He had promoted French interests in west Africa previous to his appointment to governor, and had originally travelled to the West Indies as a slaver. As governor of the island he saw to its defence, encouraged trade and planting, and was an efficient government administrator. He led invasions of both Jamaica and Cartagena during the war with the League of Augsburg, and played a major role in achieving the cessation of Saint-Domingue to the French in the Treaty of Ryswick. He worked to expand French trade in Spanish America, and was instrumental in procuring the asiento for France. Honoured by both France and Spain (he was an admiral in Spanish service, on loan from France, during conflict with England), du Casse died in 1713. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Dutch Revolts - In August 1566, an iconoclast movement within the Calvanists began desecrating churches and destroying church images (known as "the breaking of the images") a movement, which quickly spread across the southern principalities. When the movement lost the support of the nobles, the government took action against the Calvanists, besieging and capturing the Calvanist town of Valenciennes. Many Calvanists fled to England, East Friesland, and Germany, but were able to maintain their unity and support of their co-religionists in the Low Countries. The forcible measures taken by the central government against the Calvanist iconoclasts were followed by a brief period of peace. However, the introduction of stern measures against the Calvanists by the king provoked a revolt against the government , which triggered the Eighty Years' War. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Edict of Nantes - (April13, 1598) law instituted by Henry IV of France granting significant religious liberty to France's Protestant inhabitants, the Huguenots. The edict allowed Protestants to hold public worship in much of France, although not in Paris and granted them full civil rights. It also established a special court composed of both Protestants and Catholics, to deal with disputes arising from the edict. Protestant pastors were to be paid by the state, and Protestants were allowed to maintain their strongholds for eight years, with the expenses of garrisoning them being met by the king. The edict was revoked in 1685 by Louis XIV, which deprived French Protestants of all religious and civil liberties. The persecution that followed resulted in the emigration of over 400,000 Huguenots to England, Holland, Prussia, and North America. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Eighty Year War - (1568-1648) The war of the Netherlands' independence from Spain, which led to the separation of the northern and southern Netherlands and to the formation of the United Provinces of the Netherlands (the Dutch Republic). The war began with an unsuccessful invasion of the provinces by mercenary armies under Prince William I of Orange. The Geuzen, the irregular Dutch land and sea forces, had captured Holland and Zeeland by the end of 1573, had converted the areas to Calvanism, and had secured the areas against Spanish attack. The remaining provinces joined the growing revolt in 1576, forming a general union. The union was weakened by the 1579 defection of the Roman Catholic Walloon provinces, which allowed the Spanish to reconquer the southern Low Countries by 1588. However, Spanish offensives against the English and the French drew Spanish attention away from the Dutch, and allowed the republic time to organise a counter-offensive. By 1609, the beginning of a twelve-year truce, Dutch frontiers were once again secure. After 1625 the Dutch began achieving significant victories, which were reinforced by the Franco-Dutch alliance of 1635. Spain and France signed a peace treaty in 1648, under which Spain recognised Dutch independence. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

emancipation - a term originating in the early seventeenth century meaning to free from restraint, control, or the power of another. Used particularly to describe the freeing of an individual from bondage or slavery. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

empresarios - immigration agents who were employed by the Mexican government from 1821 to 1835 to encourage immigration into the Mexican state of Coahuila, a region which contained what is now the state of Texas. Empresarios selected colonists, allocated land, and facilitated law enforcement in the sparsely-inhabited area. For every one hundred families they settled in the region, the empresarios became entitled to approximately 23,000 acres of land. Over forty empresario contracts were signed, some of the primary ones by Moses Austin (fulfilled by his son, Stephen F. Austin), Sterling C. Robertson, Haden Edwards, Robert Leftwich, Green DeWitt, and Frost Thorn. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Enlightenment - a European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries in which ideas concerning God, reason, nature, and the individual were merged into a new way of viewing the world and its inhabitants that gained wide popularity. Although begun in France, the movement spread to many European centres and even to North America. The beliefs engendered by the movement were expressed in new developments in art, philosophy, and politics, in the writings of such thinkers as Voltaire, Rousseau, Bentham, Locke, and Hobbes. Central to Enlightenment thought were the use and the celebration of reason, the use of which was to provide humanity with knowledge, freedom, and happiness. One of the Enlightenment's most enduring features was the sense of optimism and belief in the progress of humanity throughout history. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

feitorias - a Spanish term meaning 'factories', these forts were established by European explorers in order to facilitate trade with non-European nations. Feitorias were built by Portuguese traders all along the west coast of Africa from whence they conducted trade with local African rulers. With the advent of the slave trade, these strongholds were used not only as trade centres for material goods but as depots to which slaves would be brought for purchase and from whence they would travel to the New World. The feitorias were usually heavily fortified, to protect their inhabitants from attack by both dissatisfied Africans as well as from the interests of other European powers, who saw the factories as strategically and financially valuable for the promotion of their own interests. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

First Opium War - (1839 - 1841) this conflict between the English and Chinese arose over tensions concerning the smuggling of Indian opium into China, which was being purchased by the Chinese with silver, which in turn was used by the English to purchase its large annual tea cargo for European sale. Increasingly larger traffic in opium from 1819 onwards resulted in substantial social and economic disruption in China, and efforts by the Peking court to ban the importation of the drug was unsuccessful because of the high degree of corruption among officials and soldiers concerned. An 1836 proposal to relax the opium restraint in Peking acquired much support, however the emperor appointed a radical patriot, Lin Tse-hsü, as Imperial commissioner for an anti-opium campaign. In late 1838 and early 1839 these anti-opium efforts were increasingly successful in stemming the Chinese side of the smuggling trade. Although Commissioner Lin was able to confiscate and destroy more than 20,000 chests of opium in Canton alone in March of 1839, the British side of the trade could not be so easily controlled. A British commission travelled to China with sixteen warships to press its demands, but no agreement was reached and open conflict erupted in May of 1841 when the British attacked Canton. The Chinese retaliated by setting burning rafts on the English fleet and by encouraging individuals to take the heads of English soldiers, however their military forces were generally ill-equipped and ill-organised. As well, a rift between the Chinese people and the government exacerbated the difficulty in recruiting more soldiers. Further British campaigns, bolstered with reinforcements from India, resulted in the surrender of Nanking in August of 1842 and peace was achieved under the Treaty of Nanking. Among the main provisions of the treaty were the cession of Hong Kong to the British, the opening of five ports to British trade, and an indemnity of $21,000,000. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

French and Indian War - the American phase of a worldwide, nine-year war (1754-63) fought between France and Great Britain. The French and Indian War began over whether the upper Ohio River valley was a part of the British Empire, and therefore open for trade and settlement by Virginian and Pennsylvanian settlers, or part of the French Empire. Settlers of English extraction were the majority of the population in the area, however French exploration, trade, and First Nations alliances predominated. In the spring of 1754, the French ousted a Virginian force from the forks of the Ohio River, and a skirmish precipitated by Colonel George Washington ended in his surrender. Generally, the first four years of the war were disastrous for the British, as the French had superior land forces in the New World. After 1757, however, the situation altered, not only because the British forces were becoming better wilderness fighters, but because of the astute leadership of William Pitt the Elder, and France's increasing economic and financial difficulties, and the rise of England's industrial and financial resources. The British began winning important victories, including the important, if brief, British victory on the Plains of Abraham in 1759. In the Treaty of Paris, signed on February 10, 1763, France formally ceded its territory on mainland North America east of the Mississippi river to Great Britain, territory including Canada. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand - (1869 - 1948) also known as Mahatma, or "great-souled", Gandhi became the leader of the Indian nationalist movement against British rule and is considered to be the father of his country. He is internationally esteemed for his doctrine of non-violent protest to achieve political and social progress. He studied in England, and returned to India in 1891 but had little success finding employment, eventually accepting a one-year contract to work in Natal, in South Africa. While there he became aware of the discrimination of Indians, and it was upon learning of the Natal government's proposal to deny Indians the right to vote that the twenty-five year-old Gandhi began taking political action. Although he was unable to prevent the passage of the bill, he did succeed in drawing public attention from England, India, and Natal to the plight of the Natal Indians. He began practising law in Durban, and in 1894 founded and became secretary of the Natal Indian Congress, which increased the sense of solidarity in the local Indian community. When the Boer War began in 1899, Gandhi managed to raise a group of over 1000 Indian volunteers to fight for Natal. In spite of his efforts, discrimination against Indians persisted after the war, and a 1906 ordinance from the Transvaal government to register its Indian population resulted in a mass protest meeting under Gandhi's leadership. Opposition to the ordinance took the form of 'satyagraha', or resistance through the acceptance of suffering and fighting without violence. The resistance continued for seven years, and resulted in the the South African government, under pressure from the governments of Britain and India, accepting a compromise negotiated in part by Gandhi himself. Gandhi returned to India in 1914, and entered Indian politics in 1919 when the British government enacted the Rowlatt Bills, which empowered the authorities to imprison anyone suspected of sedition without trial. By the autumn of 1920, Gandhi was a dominant political figure, restructuring the Indian National Congress into a powerful mass organisation. He promoted non-violent noncooperation to resist the British, including boycotting both British manufacturers and institutions. The program galvanised opposition and resulted in widespread resistance and the arrests of thousands of Indians. Gandhi was himself arrested in 1922 for sedition, but was released two years later. Gandhi took little interest in politics during the middle years of the decade but in 1930 was once again leading political resistance at the institution of a tax on salt, which affected the poorest section of the community. One of the most successful campaigns in Gandhi's non-violent war against the British Raj, the resistance resulted in the imprisonment of more than 60,000 persons. A year later, after talks with Lord Irwin, Gandhi accepted a truce and called off civil disobedience. He was imprisoned again in 1931, but was released, and he resigned as both leader and member of the Congress Party in 1934. He began to focus on nation-building, educating rural Indians, who made up 85 percent of the population, continuing his fight against the discrimination of the "untouchable" caste, promoting cottage industries for the peasantry. Gandhi became politically active again during World War II, demanding the withdrawl of the British from India. The 1945 victory of the Labour Party in England changed Indo-British relations for the better, and two years of negotiations resulted in the Mountbatten Plan of June 3, 1947, which formed the two new dominions of India and Pakistan later that year. Gandhi continued to try to close the rift between Hindus and Muslims, often fasting to promote peace and prevent rioting. He was shot by Nathuram Godse, a young Hindu fanatic, on January 30, 1948. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Hopewell Culture - a First Nations culture which flourished from about 200 BC to AD 500 in the area of present-day southern Ohio, with related groups in Michigan, Wisconsin, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Pennsylvania, and New York. The name is derived from the Hopewell farm in Ross county, Ohio, where the first site was discovered. Hopewell villages lay along rivers and streams. The people grew corn (maize) and possibly beans and squash, as well as relying on hunting, fishing, and the gathering of wild fruits, nuts, seeds, and roots. Pottery, stone and metalwork, and larger earthworks suggests a society based upon some division of labour. Copper sheet was much used; some silver and meteoric iron, and occasionally gold, entered into various ornaments and utility pieces. Sheets of mica also characterise the culture. The culture apparently had a well developed trade system, with materials from as far away as the Gulf of Mexico and the Rocky Mountains are found in Hopewell sites. After about AD 400 the culture became less sedentary and more loosely organised, as evinced by the fact that after this period the quantity and quality of fine articles and mounds declined. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Huguenots - a term applied to any of the Protestants in France in the 16th and 17th centuries, many of whom suffered severe persecution for their faith and were forced to flee to countries more tolerant of their beliefs. The first Huguenot community in French territory, that of Meaux, was founded in 1546, and a Huguenot church in Paris was founded about 1555. Although granted over eighty years of toleration under the Edict of Nantes, the edict was revoked in 1685 and many Huguenots left France rather than face further persecution. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

ice-free corridor - The ice-free corridor existed during the last ice-age. It was a stretch of ice-free land between two massive continental glaciers; the Laurentian and the Cordilleran. It is one of two possible routes, the other being a coastal route, which may have been used by the first North Americans to migrate southwards from the Arctic. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Indian Removal Bill - (May 28, 1830), was the first legislation authorising the removal of the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Seminole, Cherokee, and Creek tribes from their territories in the Southeastern United States to unsettled prairie land in the west. There was growing animosity towards even peaceful tribes as European settlement in the area in the 1820s increased rapidly. The bill specified that these tribes be paid for their lands through negotiation. Resistance to the sale and relocation, however, was met with force to gain the tribes' compliance. Approximately 100,000 individuals were forced to march westward under U.S. military coercion in the 1830s, a march that killed up to twenty-five percent of them. In the case of the Cherokee, the forced relocation to the west became known as the "Trail of Tears". The natives of Florida were even more resistant to relocation, and the second of the Seminole Wars (1835 - 1842) was fought to prevent their resettlement. Even those groups who resettled willingly in the west were faced with further disruption as westward expansion reduced their "guaranteed" lands and resulted in even more displacement. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

indigenous societies of the Caribbean - By the mid-fifteenth century, shortly before the arrival of European explorers, the Caribbean was an intricate web of interacting societies. These were grouped into three loose nations, although the island environment fostered many regional differences. The Ciboney had probably been in the region the longest. They inhabited the northwestern tips of modern Cuba and Hispaniola. They lived almost exclusively in rock shelters and caves along the coast. Their social organisation was based around small family groups, which collected shellfish, wild fruits, and herbs, and hunted fish, turtles, and reptiles. The Arawak, who lived in the regions that became the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and Trinidad, and the Carib, who occupied the present-day Virgin Islands, Lesser Antilles, and northwestern Trinidad, were more recent arrivals who were often in contact with each other. Their diets, lifestyles, and technologies were highly similar. The primary differentiation between these two groups involved their forms of social and political organisation. Both Arawak and Carib subsisted on yucca, yams, arrowroot, peanuts, peppers, maize, beans, squash, reptiles, birds, fish, shellfish, and turtles. The Arawak were comparatively peaceful, with structured patterns for both religious and political life. Each of their islands was divided into administrative regions ruled by a prominent individual. In turn, each of these administrative regions was further divided into districts and villages, with their own leaders. The Arawak also displayed an ultimately unfortunate fondness for ornamental gold jewellery. In contrast, the government of the Carib was more decentralised, with independent communities and several equal leaders on each island creating a social system that was more competitive and aggressive than that of the Arawak. This would serve them well throughout the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, for they were more able to resist European invasion and influence than the Arawak. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

interlopers - a term originating in the late sixteenth century describing an illegal or unlicensed trader who intruded into foreign areas or spheres of activity to conduct trade. In this context, the term relates specifically to those vessels, either foreign or from the same country, that engaged in illegal trade in areas held by monopolies. Unlike buccaneers, interlopers rarely had the approval of their own governments, who perceived them as a threat to the monopolies of the companies that they had sanctioned. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Iroquois Confederacy - also known as the Iroquois League, or the Five (later six) Nations, this was a political, social, and economic confederation of five First Nations tribes in the upper New York state area which was first formed between 1570 and 1600 in order for the tribes to stand together against invasion. Although there were other such confederacies, the Iroquois Confederacy was unique in its strength, organisation, and effectiveness. The Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca were the original tribes involved, calling themselves "the people of the longhouse", and were joined by the Tuscarora in 1722, the same year the confederacy was recognised by the English as the Six Nations. The Iroquois used elaborately ritualised systems for choosing leaders and making important decisions, based more on ceremonial sanction rather than on the decisions of any individual leader. Although the nations did not always act as a single entity, the security of the confederacy allowed for spectacular successes in warfare. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the confederacy played an important role in the conflict between British and French forces for control of North America. The Mohawk traded beaver pelts to the English and Dutch in exchange for firearms, and the resulting depletion of the area's beaver population led the confederacy to attack distant tribes. By 1750 the confederacy had either subdued, incorporated, or destroyed most of the tribes in the Peidmont area. After the Iroquois had destroyed the Huron confederacy in 1648-50, they began fifteen years of successful raids against New France, conquering Lachine, near Montreal, in 1689. These attacks were finally ended by a series of successful campaigns against the confederacy from 1693 to 1696 by the Count de Frontenac, the governor of New France. The Iroquois' success in maintaining their autonomy from both the French and English was an amazing achievement for a group of people who could field only 2,200 men from a total population of just over 12,000. The American War of Independence split the confederacy, with some tribes supporting Britain and some the Americans. A 1779 defeat by Major General John Sullivan led to an acknowledgement of defeat in the Second Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1784, and signalled the end of the Iroquois Confederacy, although those tribes who had been loyal to the British were given a land grant in Canada. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Jansenism - a religious movement based upon the posthumous publication of a book entitled "Augustinius", written by a Dutch theologian named Cornelius Jansen. The book was a defence of the teachings and theology of St. Augustine, as opposed to the dominant theological trends of the time, specifically the theology of the Jesuits. Jansenism asserted the Augustinian doctrine of original sin, and condemned the Jesuit tendency to find loopholes in order to evade the more uncompromising demands of divine law. The papacy took action against the movement, condemning it in papal bulls issued in both 1653 and 1713. Although Jansenism was condemned, it did have the later effect of contributing to the evangelical movements throughout the church in the 19th and 20th centuries. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

jihads - the term comes from the Arabic word "Jihad" meaning "fight," or "battle". The jihad is a religious duty imposed on Muslims in order to spread the Islamic faith. Individuals can choose to fulfil this duty either by the heart, the tongue, the hand, or the sword. The fulfilment by the heart consists of a personal, spiritual purification of one's own heart, whereas the fulfilment by tongue or hand involves efforts to support what is right and to correct through one's actions what is wrong. Fulfilling one's duty by the sword involved the physical waging of war against unbelievers. Those of faiths which profess a belief in a divine revelation, such as Christians and Jews, were given the option to embrace Islam or submit themselves to Islamic rule and be subject to a land tax and poll. If these options were still rejected, then jihad could be declared. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

joint-stock company - a company or association consisting of individuals organised to conduct a business for gain and having a joint stock of capital represented by shares owned individually by the members and transferable without the consent of the group. (from Merriam-Webster Online) (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Louisiana Purchase - (April 30, 1803) The purchase of the western half of the Mississippi River basin, the Louisiana Territory, in the form France had received it from Spain, by the United States. The 2,144,520 square kilometre territory was sold for a total of $27,267,622, and doubled the size of the United States, strengthening it both materially and strategically. The acquisition of the huge amount of land also provided impetus to greater westward expansion by settlers. The boundaries of the territory, however, were initially unclear, and the United States had to negotiate both with Spain for the purchase of West Florida and Great Britain for the establishment of the American-Canadian border along the 49th parallel, North. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Loyalists - colonists loyal to Great Britain during the American Revolution, making up approximately one-third of the population of the American colonies during that conflict. Although they were not to found predominating any particular group or class, their numbers were greatest among those groups who were conservative and had a deep devotion to the mother country and the crown. Officeholders and others who served the British crown, Anglican clergymen and their parishioners in the North, who had taken vows of allegiance to the king, pacifist groups such as the Quakers and members of some German religious sects, and wealthy individuals whose businesses or property were affected by the war tended to be Loyalists. They were most numerous in New York, Pennsylvania, and the South, although they were not a majority in any area. The Loyalists did not rise as a body to support the British army, however some individuals did join the army or form their own guerrilla units. American Revolutionaries hated Loyalists and treated any of them taken in battle as traitors. All states passed severe laws against Loyalists, including denying them the vote, barring them from holding office, and either confiscating or heavily taxing their properties. As a result, many Loyalists fled, a large portion of them into Canada. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Maya - The society of the Maya, which lasted from approximately 1000 B.C.E. to 900 C.E., was highly intricate and diverse. Crucial to the development of Maya civilisation were religious beliefs, ritual organisation, and extensive trading networks. The predecessors of the Maya were hunter-gatherers who lived in small social groupings. By 800 B.C.E. the Maya were well established as settled farmers leading an agricultural lifestyle in the Yucatan. Maya civilisation advanced rapidly, spreading throughout the region. In the Maya regions of Mesoamerica a series of small, independent kingdoms developed, flourishing during the Classic period (250 C.E. to 900 C.E.). These were never united to form a centralised state or empire, but rather formed a succession of regional centres capable of exerting influence only on their closest neighbours. The largest regions controlled by a single Maya ruler were in northeast Peten. These independent city-states interacted politically through diplomacy, warfare, and alliance. Economically, they were connected by a sophisticated and elaborate trading network, and culturally they shared an intricate belief system with common ceremonial centres. As a people, the Maya were highly accomplished. They built large and elaborate temples and pyramids and developed a hieroglyphic script, which they used for calculating intricate and extremely accurate calendars and for regulating religious observances. Each family's social status was determined by their distance from the royal line of descent. This illustrates the centrality both of political and religious life, as the king served not only as the head of state, but also as intermediary between the Earth and the Otherworld. Maya civilisation peaked around 600 C.E., and in 900 C.E. it suddenly collapsed. No one knows the cause of the collapse with certainty, but most scholars feel that it was prompted by several events, ranging from overpopulation to social unrest, from agricultural collapse to natural disaster. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites - religious Protestant denominations which originally arose from the Anabaptists, a radical reform movement of the 16th century Reformation. The Mennonite faith is named for Menno Simonsz, a Dutch priest who institutionalised the work initiated by the moderate Anabaptist leaders. Mennonites trace their origin to the so-called Swiss Brethren, formed in 1525. Due to the religious persecution fostered by the group's non-conformity to accepted Reformation doctrines, members fled to other areas of Europe, where their ideas were more popular, and membership grew. Another outgrowth from the Anabaptist doctrine came to be known as the Hutterian Brethren, under Jakob Hutter, who died in 1536. The Hutterites were characterised by their communal living and for their missionary zeal, and today still live communally and practice community of goods. A major schism from 1693 to 1697 resulted when a Swiss Mennonite bishop left the group to form the Amish Church, his goal being to preserve biblical discipline among the membership. Continued persecution of the religiously and often geographically segregated denominations resulted in many individuals migrating to other areas of Europe, such as Russia, and the Netherlands, or to the United States and Canada. Up to the late 19th century, most Mennonites in North America lived in rural communities, maintaining their strategy of withdrawal from society as a means of survival and group cohesion, and which has become central in Mennonite theology. They worked to preserve their German language and heritage, and engaged successfully in farming. Mennonite migrations continued during the 20th century, primarily from Russia to North and to areas such as Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Bolivia, and Mexico. As well, Mennonite migrants and missionaries established numerous churches in Latin America, Africa, Oceania, and Asia. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

 Mercantilism - an ideology which maintained that there was a finite amount of wealth available in the world, and that it was necessary for individual nations to appropriate as much of that wealth as possible in order to gain the upper hand over rival nations. Exploration and exploitation of territories beyond Europe were vital components of mercantilist ideology, as were sheer curiosity and religious interests. Exploration led to the discovery of new lands, new Christian converts, and new sources of wealth. Mercantilist nations had as their goals acquiring spices, gold, and other precious metals, the development of shipping and naval power, bringing the word of God to those thought of as heathen and pagan, achieving national economic self-sufficiency, and establishing the supremacy of the home country over the colonies. This latter aim was to be accomplished through state intervention in the economy, and by keeping skilled artisans in the home country and sending the colonies low-priced, unskilled labour (including criminals, other malcontents, indentured servants and, later, slaves). As well, countries sought to obtain raw materials from their colonies, exchanging them for manufactured goods. The goal of all of this was to increase national wealth, power, and prestige. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Metacomet's Rebellion - (1675 - 1676) also known as ' King Philip's War' (1675-76), this conflict was the most severe Indian war in New England history. Metacomet, also known as King Philip, or Philip Of Pokanoket, was ruler of the Wampanoag tribe in the area of New England. Although he was initially successful at maintaining the long-standing peace with European settlers, tension rose as Europeans forced the tribe to surrender their guns and to sell ever-larger amounts of land, humiliations that became increasingly difficult to bear. In June 1675 open violence erupted when three Wampanoag warriors were executed for the murder of John Sassamon, a tribal informer. Metacomet was aided in his battle against the Europeans by a coalition of the Narragansett, Abnaki, Nipmuck, and Mohawk tribes, and they were initially victorious. After a year of fighting, however, the coalition began to crumble and food became scarce. Although Metacomet returned to Mount Hope, he was betrayed by an informer, and was beheaded and quartered. His head was displayed on a pole at Plymouth for 25 years. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

methods of dating archaeological evidence -

Radiocarbon Dating: This method of establishing a date for an archaeological site relies upon the fact that radioactive carbon isotope known as 14C deteriorates at a known and constant rate, becoming the stable isotope 12C. By determining the amount of residual 14C that remains in organic material at an archaeological site, it is possible to estimate its age. However, this method is complicated by the fact that the amount of 14C in the atmosphere changes over time, which means that one radiocarbon year may not correspond to one calendar year. This method is most useful when applied to sites dating from between 50,000 to 500 years ago. Early settlements in the Americas have been dated by this method, as have the initial stages of cultivated agriculture.

Obsidian Hydration Dating: Obsidian, a type of natural glass caused by volcanic activities, has long been used as a primitive yet highly effective tool throughout the world. Its extremely sharp edges make excellent cutting tools, and it may be used in a variety of ways. It is often present at archaeological sites, having been used by the site's inhabitants, and may serve to help establish a date. A newly-made surface of obsidian absorbs water from its environment, and the amount of water absorbed increases with time. The liquid forms a hydration layer within the obsidian, the depth of which can be used to determine the date the surface was made. This method is useful for ordering large numbers of artefacts, as well as for dating sites, provided there is a second method available for comparison.

Fission Track Dating: Minerals and natural glasses such as obsidian contain uranium atoms that deteriorate by spontaneous fission. The rate of deterioration can be measured in volcanic rocks, a property which allows dating of archaeological sites where these materials are present. This method is most useful for sites between one million and 100,000 years old.

Thermoluminescence Dating: Baked clay vessels found in archaeological sites contain stored energy and radioactive impurities. When suddenly and energetically heated, it is possible to examine these stored properties, allowing scientists to date clay vessels as old as 10,000 years. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Mexican-American War - (1846 - 1848) a conflict which arose as a result of the American annexation of Texas in 1845, which angered Mexicans, as well as the dispute over where the borders of the state should be drawn. The Mexican government, aware of American intentions to purchase large portions of what is today New Mexico and California, refused to receive John Sidell, the man who was to negotiate the sale. In response the United States' government ordered troops to occupy the disputed area in January of 1846. Although congress approved war after a Mexican attack on the troops in the Rio Grande, which was still Mexican territory, opinions on the war were divided. American occupation of New Mexico and California met with little resistance, and were victorious in their military campaigns in teh Rio Grande area. Victorious after a three-week siege of Veracruz, American forces advanced to Mexico City, entering it on September 14, 1847 and ending the military phase of the conflict. The resulting peace treaty, signed on February 2, 1848, ceded nearly all the territory in what are now the states of New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California, Texas, and western Colorado to the United States for the sum of $15,000,000. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

migration streams - a flow of individuals from one area to another, with a small amount of return migration. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Minnesota Sioux Uprising - In 1851 and 1859 the Santee Sioux gave up most of their land in Minnesota to American settlers and were assigned a reservation on which they were encouraged to practice settled agriculture. Repeated violations of the treaties, as well as the tensions caused by the advancing frontier of white settlers, moved the tribe to action. The uprising under Little Crow in 1862 was one of the bloodiest uprisings in American history. They were defeated and 38 Sioux were hung at Mankato out of the over four hundred who were tried for the massacre of white settlers at New Ulm. After their defeat, the Santee Sioux were forced to move westward to reservations in Dakota and Nebraska. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Mississippian Society - the last major prehistoric cultural development in North America, which lasted from about 800 A.C.E. to the time of the arrival of the first European explorers. The culture spread over a great area of the Southeast and the mid-continent, in the river valleys of what are now the states of Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, with scattered extensions as far north as Wisconsin and Minnesota. The culture was based on intensive cultivation of crops such as corn (maize), beans, and squash. Each large town or village dominated a satellite of lesser villages and warfare, which was apparently frequent, produced larger alliances and even confederacies. The largest of its surviving earthworks, Monks Mound, is located in the Cahokia Mounds near Collinsville, Illinois. The magnitude of such public works and the distribution of temples suggest a dominant religious cult, a government run by priest-rulers, and several artist-craftsman guilds, as well as a large, stable, and docile population. The Mississippian culture had begun to decline by the time European explorers first penetrated the Southeast and described the customs of the aboriginals. The last remnant seems to have been the Natchez, whose decline and dispersal were caused, and described, by the French between 1698 and 1731. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

mitochondrial DNA sequence - The mitochondria, a small organelle present in every human cell responsible for energy production and cellular respiration, contains its own DNA. Each child inherits this DNA from their mother. The sequence of nucleotide bases in a DNA molecule can hence be used to trace human lineages far back into the past. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Modoc War - (1872 -1873) In 1864 the American government induced the Klamanth and the Modoc, two tribes living in the area of what is now south central Oregon and northern California, to give up much of their territory and settle on a reservation around Upper Klamanth Lake. Not only were the Modoc looked on as intruders into what had traditionally been Klamanth-held land, but the American government also negledcted to send supply rations to the Modoc, as specified in their agreement. In 1870 an insurgent band of Modocs under Kintpuash, also known as Captain Jack, left the reservation. The efforts to induce their return precipitated open conflict in 1872, and about eighty warriors and their families retreated to the ravines and caves of the California Lava Beds, from which they could successfully resist. Kintpuash was betrayed by four of his followers, surrendered, and was hanged on October 3, 1873. His followers were forced to relocate to Oklahoma, although survivors were allowed to return to Oregon in 1909. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Mormons - a religion founded in upstate New York by Joseph Smith, which had its origin in the widespread millennial enthusiasm of the late 19th century. The religion advocated the restoration of the "true" church, viewing other Christian denominations as having strayed from the primitive Christian church. Smith established the United Order of Enoch at Kirtland and in Jackson County, Missouri, however persecution by non-Moromons, who viewed the group as religious fanatics, escalated to armed conflict. 15,000 Mormons left Missouri in 1839 as a result, and settled in Illinois, in a city that Smith built called Nauvoo. More hostility at the Mormons' growing political and commercial power resulted in the arrest of Smith, and his murder by a mob while held in jail on June 27, 1844. Upon Smith's death leadership of the Mormons was taken up by Brigham Young, who became president of the church. Under his leadership the Mormons undertook a migration of almost two thousand kilometres in 1846-47 to Utah. By 1869 an estimated 80,000 individuals had reached Salt Lake City, where the group hoped to be able to establish themselves and practice their religion without persecution. The Mormons began colonising all over the West. They built temples and tabernacles, founded schools, and engaged in mercantile and industrial ventures. By 1890 the Mormon church, in response to government pressure, abandoned the practice of polygamy in order to conform with U.S. civil law, and in 1896 the territory of Utah was admitted into the union as the 45th state. The Mormon way of life is still distinguished by order and respect for authority, church activism, strong conformity within the group, and vigorous proselytising and missionary activities. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Napoleonic Wars - The wars precipitated by the French Revolution, for the defence and dissemination of revolutionary ideals, had concluded by approximately 1801. Napoleon's rise to absolute power in France, however, shifted France's military aims to those of increased influence and the acquisition of territory. Napoleon's first major military success came in a manoeuvre against Austrian and Sardinian forces in Italy, which resulted in the ceding of the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium and Luxembourg), to France, the country's first territorial acquisition. Napoleon's campaign into Egypt in 1798 was a failure, his French naval squadron being defeated by Admiral Horatio Nelson, which left him without sufficient naval support. After failing to take Acre in 1799, Napoleon withdrew to France, although his army continued to occupy Egypt until 1801. However, other French forces had occupied new territories and established republican regimes in Rome, Switzerland, and the Italian Piedmont. A further victory over Austria in 1800 resulted in France being the dominant power on the continent. Only Britain had the naval power to oppose Napoleon, and Nelson's victory at Trafalgar in 1805 ensured that France would not invade England. Further French victories over Prussia meant that by 1809 the French all of Europe from the English Channel to the Russian border, with the exceptions of Portugal, Sweden, Sardinia, and Sicily, either part of the French Empire, under France's control, or allied to France by treaty. Napoleon also undertook an unsuccessful trade war against Britain, which cost him political support. Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 proved disastrous, as the Russians used Napoleon's military strategy against him. By avoiding full-scale engagement, and by withdrawing farther into the country, burning their resources on which Napoleon's troops were to have relied on for supplies, Napoleon was forced to retreat along the same route, now totally depleted of resources, in the middle of winter. The Russians then took the opportunity to attack the retreating army, and Napoleon lost approximately 500,000 men, as well as the faith of his allies. A new coalition against Napoleon's forces and the loss of his allies one by one slowly forced withdrawal. An invasion of France in 1814 reached Paris and Napoleon was forced to abdicate and went into exile for less than a year. He returned and rallied a new army, but was finally defeated at the battle of Waterloo in 1815. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

nativism - a term dating from 1844, it refers to the policy of favouring native inhabitants as opposed to immigrants. In the case of the United States, nativism was especially virulent on the Western coast against Asian immigrants, resulting in discrimination and often open violence. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Neo-Eskimos and Paleo-Eskimos - By the time the Europeans arrived en mass in the Americas, the ancestors of the modern Inuit, the Thule, were migrating eastward across the Arctic. The Thule, often known as the Neo-Eskimo, had displaced the earlier Dorset (whose culture had developed from the original Paleo-Eskimo) who had also inhabited the northern regions of present-day Canada. It was possibly the Dorset who had been part of early First Nations encounters with Norse explorers on the northern coast of Labrador. By this time they were already giving way to the Thule. Unlike the Dorset, the Thule used bows and arrows, spear throwers, and sealskin-covered kayaks. They were the dominant people of the tundra and the Arctic, and were recognised as such by Amerindians to the south. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Olmecs - The earliest of the major Mesoamerican civilisations, the Olmec lived on the Gulf Coast from about 3,500 to 2,500 years ago. In this rich and fertile area, the Olmec created a uniquely distinctive style of art. Their use of sculpture and relief work concentrated on images of humanlike jaguars. Elements of Olmec artistic style diffused throughout Mesoamerica, profoundly influencing the art of later civilisations. The Olmec also erected early pyramids and ball-courts, and engaged in extensive trade in obsidian and other semi-prescious materials. Olmec society was organised into a series of independent but interconnected communities with powerful leaders. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Pequot War - A short but violent conflict between the Pequot tribe and European settlers. Although the Pequot and British settlers had lived peacefully from 1620, new colonists pushing into Pequot lands heightened growing tensions. In 1636 a Boston trader was murdered, presumably by a Pequot, and an expedition was sent out by Massachusetts' authorities to destroy native villages and crops. The move further angered the Pequot, who rose to defend their homes. Puritan clergymen, regarding the Pequot as infidels, encouraged violence against the tribe. With the aid of the Mohegan and Narraganset tribes, the main Pequot fort at Mystic, Conneticut was destroyed in a surprise attack, and approximately six hundred individuals were burned alive or murdered. Those Pequot who decided to flee the area were often killed or captured by other tribes or the English, and some were even sold into slavery in New England or the West Indies. Those who surrendered were distributed among other tribes, where they were often persecuted. As a result the Pequot's numbers rapidly fell, until today there are about 200 surviving members of the tribe. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

pogrom - from a Russian term meaning "devastation" or "riot", it refers to a mob attack against the persons and property of a religious, racial, or national minority, which can be either approved or condemned by authorities. It is usually used to refer to attacks on Jews. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

population growth rate - the speed of the natural increase of any given group of individuals combined with the effects of migration. Although the effects of migration are generally have a much smaller impact than possible changes in fertility or mortality, a high rate of natural increase could be somewhat offset by a large migration of individuals out of the population. Also, a low rate of natural increase could be mitigated by large numbers of arriving immigrants. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

provision colonies - those colonies which, rather than producing such luxury items as sugar, cocoa, or tobacco, grew food and supplied enough food staples, livestock, and other essential provisions for export to colonies which did not possess an abundance of these resources. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Puritans - a religious reform movement in the late 16th and 17th centuries that sought to "purify" the Church of England of what they saw as remnants of Roman Catholicism retained after a religious settlement early in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. The group were primarily concerned with the spirit of moral and religious zeal and they strove to incorporate it into every aspect of their lives. Through church reform they sought to extend their way of life to the whole country. Their efforts to transform the nation led to civil war in England and to the founding of colonies in America as working models of the Puritan way of life. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

push and pull factors - When studying migrations, scholars often examine them in light of their causes. The nature of a diaspora is determined to a large degree by why it occurs. Influences that encourage the migrants to leave their place of origin are termed "push factors". They include such things as overpopulation, war, social unrest, natural disaster, and lack of economic opportunity. The influences that encourage people to migrate to a specific destination are "pull factors". Having friends or family already living at the intended destination encourages immigration, as does available work, religious or ideological toleration, and political stability. These two factors combine with other influences such as chain migration and return migration to determine the overall structure of migratory movements. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Quietism - a doctrine of Christian spirituality which emerged in the latter half of the seventeenth century under Miguel de Molinos, a Spanish priest. He believed that, in general, perfection can only be achieved through the passivity (quiet) of the soul, and through the suppression of human effort so that divine action may have full play. For Molinos, inactivity and complete passivity brought the soul back to God, into whom it was ideally transformed. Those who have achieved this goal could will only what God wills because their own wills had been taken away. According to Quietist tenets, the devil could make himself master of the passive individual's body and force it to perform sinful acts, however the fact that the individual did not consent to such acts rendered them not sinful. Molinos' teachings were condemned by Pope Innocent XI in 1687, and he was sentenced to life in prison. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Reformation and Counter-Reformation - the Reformation was the religious revolution that took place in the Western church in the 16th century, as a response to the growing wealth, power, and politicisation of the Catholic Church in Europe. The sale of indulgences and relics by the clergy, and the corruption of many Church officials, undermined the spiritual authority of the church and called into question its spiritual aims. The Reformation's primary leaders were Martin Luther and John Calvin, both of whom believed in a return to the teachings of the Bible and an emphasis on an individual's relationship with God. Although these currents of discontent with the corruption of the church had been present long before, the Reformation itself is said to have begun with the posting of the Ninety-Five Theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenburg on Oct. 31, 1517. What distinguished this attack on the church from others that had come before was the fact that Luther examined not the corruption, but the theological problems he saw in church doctrine. The Reformation movement within Germany diversified rapidly, other movements developing independent of Luther, such as the ideas developed by Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin. The term Protestantism was used first to delineate these groups protesting against Rome by the Diet of Speyer in 1529, while the religion itself quickly spread across Europe. In response to the growing popularity, the Catholic Church launched its own offensive, the Counter-Reformation, in an effort to institute its own reforms and to counter the Protestant movement. These efforts which resulted in the 1545 Council of Trent, which sought to combat the corruption and decadence of the Catholic Church and a refocus on missionary endeavours. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

return migration - The return of migrants to the regions from which they had migrated in the past. Such migrants include individuals for whom return represents a progression in their career as a result of promotion or transfer, retired individuals returning to the places of their birth or youth, and those migrants who return discouraged, because their expectations have not been fulfilled. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Riel Rebellions - a series of Metis uprisings led by Louis Riel in what is today northern Saskatchewan. In 1869 an expected influx of English-speaking settlers alarmed the Metis population, descendants of French settlers and First Nations. Riel assumed leadership of the group and he and his followers halted the Canadian surveyors and prevented the governor-designate, William McDougall, from entering Red River. They established a provisional government after seizing Fort Garry, present-day Winnipeg, with Riel as president. From here they negotiated terms of union with Canada. The Manitoba Act of 1870 established the province of Manitoba and ensured amnesty to the rebels. When Riel's provisional government court-martialled and executed an English-speaking Canadian, the amnesty was relinquished and a military force was sent against Riel. Fort Garry was recaptured in August 1870, the rebellion came to an end and Riel was forced to flee. From 1879 to 1884 he lived in Montana, where he tried to organise the Metis in that region. Riel returned to Saskatchewan to represent Metis land claims to the Canadian government. Although he began proceeding legally, when that failed he once more established a provisional government in 1885, and another uprising occurred, which was crushed by Canadian forces. Riel surrendered, was found guilty of treason, and hanged. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

sharecropping - a term originating in approximately 1923 to describe a tenant farmer, especially in the southern United States, who is provided with credit for seed, tools, living quarters, and food, and who works the land. In return the individual receives an agreed share of the value of the crop minus charges. In many cases, including that of freed slaves, the negotiated price for the supplies was often calculated to be more than the value of their share of the crop, keeping the individual farmer tied for an indefinite period to the land on which he was required to work. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Siete Partidas - slave law created under Alfonso X of Castile and Leon which was created from 1263 to 1265 and specified how slaves were to be treated and outlined what rights they possessed. It formed the basis of many future slave laws, including the Spanish Slave Code of 1789 and the Louisiana Slave Code of 1824. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Spanish silver fleet - those ships owned by the Spanish for the express purpose of shipping gold and silver from the New World back to Spain. Because of the immense wealth that these ships carried, they were often prey to attack from buccaneers and pirates from other nations who were anxious to secure some of the newly found wealth from the New World. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Sugar Act - (1764) British legislation which attempted both to curtail the clandestine trade in sugar and molasses from the French and Dutch West Indies to its colonies, and to increase revenues to fund England's responsibilities in its growing empire, especially the newly acquired colony of Canada. England hoped to acheive this by enforcing duties on any sugar or molasses imported from any non-British colonial source, which granted British sugar producers a virtual monopoly of the American market. Although many colonists complained of the restrictions, the Sugar Act severely cut down on the smuggling of foreign sugar. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Teotihuacan - Northeast of what is now Mexico City lies the centre of Teotihuacan. Established around 200B.C.E., it expanded rapidly, becoming one of the dominant political and cultural centres of Mesoamerica by 500 C.E.. As early as 150 C.E., the city housed over 20,000 people. Centred on the north-south axis of the Avenue of the Dead, the city contained plazas, markets, temples, palaces, apartment buildings, and drainage and agricultural systems. It was dominated by the Pyramid of the Sun, which is over sixty-four metres high. Surrounding the city were agricultural villages, which were planned and administered by city rulers. These farms, combined with tribute from neighbouring groups, supplied the agricultural surplus necessary to support the city. Craftspeople, merchants, and civil servants were all-important members of Teotihuacan society. The ruler was regarded as a divine king, and political power was largely shared with the nobility. The influence of Teotihuacan upon other societies of Mesoamerica was significant. Its political and social influence was impressive, extending throughout many areas of the highlands and lowlands of Mesoamerica. It affected how later states and rulers would go to war, and also influenced the cosmology and ideology of many neighbouring groups. Most significantly, it was the first instance of a centralising force in Mesoamerica, and following its fall in 650-700 C.E., the connections established by the Teotihuacan affected the development of later societies in the Valley of Mexico. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Thirty Years War - (1618 - 1648) a conflict which involved most of Europe at one time or another and which was fought for a variety of reasons, religious and territorial motivations being among the most prevalent. Fought predominantly in Germany, although battles were fought throughout Europe, the War resulted in a significant shift in the balance of power in Europe. In general terms, the conflict involved the Catholic forces of the Hapsburgs of the Holy Roman Empire against the various Protestant towns and principalities, arrayed under the most powerful anti-Catholic powers of Sweden and the Netherlands. The war began in 1618, when the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand II attempted to impose Roman Catholic absolutism in his territories, resulting in the rebellion of both Bohemian and Austrian nobles, who were Protestant. Although Ferdinand managed to suppress the rebellion in five years, other conflicts had broken out, including an invasion of Germany by Denmark. The resulting defeat relegated Denmark to a lesser European power. The invasion of Germany by Sweden's Gustav II Adolf, however, was more successful, largely due to his anti-Catholic stance which won over many of the German princes. Poland, in turn, attacked Russia and managed to establish a dictatorship in Moscow. A Russian-Polish peace allowed Poland to attack Sweden, as it was involved with its German campaign. The battle in Germany between the three powers drew other European countries into the fray, including France and Spain. The Treaty of Westphalia, which ended the conflict in 1648, left a Europe radically altered by the war and was especially disruptive for those individuals within the battle-torn areas who had to deal with shifting religious currents and bands of marauding soldiers. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Toltecs - Many groups in central Mesoamerica fought to establish their political power during the ninth century. This continued until tenth century, when the Toltecs asserted their dominance and established a capital at Tula, fifty-seven kilometres north of the Valley of Mexico. They were a significant, yet short-lived, influence on the social, religious, and political systems of central Mesoamerica and the Yucatan. Tula was destroyed in 1160, shortly before another period of political and military strife ensued in the Valley of Mexico. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

Treaty of Paris - (1763) also known as the Peace of Paris, was the treaty concluding the Franco-British conflicts of the Seven Years' War and signed by representatives of Great Britain and Hanover on one side and France and Spain on the other. In the treaty, Britain gained all mainland North America east of the Mississippi, excluding New Orleans and environs, as well as gaining the West Indian islands of Grenada, Saint Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago, and all French conquests made since 1749 in India or in the East Indies. France, ont he other hand, gained back their previously owned territories of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Marie-Galante, and Désirade, as well as the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon off Newfoundland and the West African colony of Gorée, and Belle-Île-en-Mer off Brittany. France also gained the territory of Saint Lucia from Britain. At the time, many British subjects thought that Britain should have given up Canada in favour of the West Indian colonies. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

War of 1812 - a conflict between the British and the Americans which was sparked by growing tensions along the United States- Canadian border as well as oppressive maritime practices by the English during the Napoleonic Wars. Several battles on both land and sea failed to establish a victor, and even though the Americans were unsuccessful in their goal to take Canada, the British were unsuccessful in their manoeuvres in the Southern United States. Conflict was finally ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent in 1814. Although the war was inconclusive, it did lessen the United States' dependence on Europe, as well as heighten American nationalism. (use browser's 'back' button to return)

War of Spanish Succession - (1701 -1714) begun upon the death of Charles II of Spain, this conflict arose due to conflicting claims for the Spanish throne and empire. Although Charles II had granted his lands to Philip, Duc d'Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV of France, believing he to be the claimant who would keep the empire united. When Charles II died and Philip was proclaimed by his grandfather as heir, and Louis XIV invaded the Spanish Netherlands. An anti-French alliance was formed on September 7, 1701 by England, the Dutch Republic, and the emperor Leopold. They were later joined by Prussia, Hanover, other German states, and Portugal. Although this alliance managed to defeat France's interests in the Low Countries, Italy, and Germany, they were not able to drive Philip from Spain. Conflicts of interest between the former allies led to the French advantage and each of the former allies sued for peace with France in 1714. The first treaties was signed at Utrecht in April 1713. These and the later treaties of Rastatt and Baden ignored the will of Charles II and divided his inheritance among the powers. Philip, Louis XIV's grandson, remained king of Spain, but the treaties marked the rise of the power of Britain and the British colonial empire at the expense of both France and Spain. (use browser's 'back' button to return)