The Islamic World to 1600

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Islamic theology is a large field, requiring detailed study to fully understand. There are several basic beliefs and practices, however, that can be outlined here. Central to Islamic belief is the absolute power of God. Islam is strictly monotheistic, believing that there is only one God, omnipotent and merciful, and that associating any human being or image with God is an unforgivable sin. We have already seen how this view translates into the Muslim rejection of the Christian belief in Jesus' divinity, as well as in the Trinity, and it also means that Muslims do not accept idolatry, or shirk.

As we have also seen, Muslims believe that Muhammad was the last of a series of prophets that God sent to earth. While respecting the teachings of all earlier prophets, Muslims believe that Allah sent his final message to Muhammad in order to correct the corruption of the previous messages. As with the other Abrahamic religions, Satan also exists in Islamic theology, but Islam's strict monotheism maintains that God is the most important figure. Satan is not nearly as important in Islam as he is in Christianity, for example. Also unlike Christianity, Muslims do not believe in original sin. They believe that God pardoned Adam's sin in order for human beings to begin life without sin. Muslims who have sinned in their lives, and who sincerely repent and submit to God, can be forgiven for their sins. Muslims also believe in a Judgement Day, when the world will end and the dead will rise to be judged.

There are Five Pillars of Islam, which are the most important practices for a Muslim to observe:

1. Creed (Shahada): The statement of Shahada in Arabic is: "Ashhadu al-la ilaha illa-llah wa ashhadu anna Muhammadar rasulu-llah." An English translation would be: "I bear witness that there is no God but Allah and I bear witness that Muhammad is His Messenger." This declaration of the faith must be uttered publicly at least once in a Muslim's lifetime, although most Muslims recite it daily.

   The Shahada inscribed at the Ottoman Topkapi Palace in Istanbul Courtesy of IslamiCity www.islam.org

   The Masjid Aqsa in Jerusalem Courtesy of IslamiCity www.islamicity.org

2. Prayers (Salate): The Muslim holy day is Friday, when congregations gather just past noon in a masjid, or mosque in English, the Muslim place of worship. The three holiest places of worship in the Islamic world are the Mosque of the Ka'ba in Mecca, the Mosque of the Prophet Muhammad in Medina, and the Masjid Aqsa, adjacent to the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. An Imam, or religious leader, gives a sermon and leads the congregation in prayer. Muslims do not need to be in a mosque in order to pray, however; they may do it anywhere - a house, office, school, or even outside. They must observe the qibla in all cases though, by facing towards the Ka'ba in Mecca when praying. Prayers must be performed five times daily - at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and nightfall. The prayers always contain verses from the Qur'an, and must be said in Arabic. Muslims believe that prayer provides a direct link between the worshipper and God.

3. Purifying Tax (Zakat): Muslims believe that all things belong to God, and that humans hold wealth in trust for him. For that reason, it is believed that wealth should be distributed throughout the community of believers, or umma, through a purifying tax. The usual payment is 2.5 per cent of a person's wealth every year, the proceeds of which are distributed to the less fortunate. Additional charity work is also encouraged.

4. Fasting (Sawm): During the month of Ramadan, the ninth month in the Islamic calendar, Muslims fast between dawn and dusk. They must abstain from food, liquid, and intimate contact during those hours of the day, in order to commemorate the Muslim belief that Ramadan was the month in which the Qur'an descended from the highest heaven to the lowest, from which it was then revealed to Muhammad in pieces over 22 years. Fasting is seen as a method of self-purification, by cutting oneself off from worldly comforts. The sick, elderly, travellers, and nursing or pregnant women are permitted to break the fast during Ramadan, provided they make up for it during an equal number of days later in the year. Children begin the ritual at puberty. The end of Ramadan is celebrated by the Eid al-Fitr, one of the major festivals on the Muslim calendar.

5. Pilgrimage (Hajj): All Muslims are required to make one pilgrimage to Mecca in their lifetimes, provided they are physically and financially able to do so. The Hajj begins in the 12th month of the Islamic lunar calendar which means, like Ramadan, it does not correspond to a specific month in the solar calendar. Modern transportation methods, particularly the airplane, have made it possible for many more Muslims to make the Hajj today than 1400 years ago. Like Ramadan, the end of the Hajj is also celebrated with a festival, the Eid al-Adha, which is celebrated by all Muslims, whether or not they made the pilgrimage. These two festivals are the highlight of the Islamic year.

Hajj pilgrims praying towards the Ka'ba at the Masjid Al-Haram in Mecca
Courtesy of IslamiCity
www.islamicity.org

Gender Roles

The roles assigned to men and women in Islamic theology have often come under fire in the Judeo-Christian world, mostly due to misunderstandings of Islam's position on gender roles, or the corruption of Qur'anic doctrine by present-day political leaders in Muslim countries. The Qur'an says that men and women are created equally before God, and that while they have different attributes, neither gender is superior. Both men and women have souls and can go to Heaven if they lead a life without sin, contradicting early Christian doctrine that women do not possess souls and are inherently evil, because of Eve's original sin. Islam does not blame Eve for what it believes happened in the Garden of Eden; it maintains that both Adam and Eve were responsible, but they repented before God and were forgiven. Believing women descended from the sinful Eve colored Christian ideas of women's character for centuries - as untrustworthy, morally inferior, wicked beings - with menstruation, pregnancy, and childbirth believed to be punishment for all women after Eve. The Qur'an has no such images of women, who are not put on earth solely to bear children, but also to do good deeds the same as men.

The Qur'an states that women are not possessions of men. They are free to choose their own husbands and maintain their own names after marriage. Divorce is permitted, though discouraged. Polygamy, or the practice of a man having more than one wife, is also permitted - to a maximum of four wives - with the stipulation that the man must have means to care for all of his wives. Both women and men are encouraged to seek knowledge, and to manage their own financial assets. A wife has the right to claim financial support from her husband, but a husband is not entitled to his wife's earnings, inheritance, or property. Women can own their own property, enter into legal contracts themselves, and give testimony in legal proceedings. A wife has the right to receive a mahr, or dowry, from her husband upon marriage, which cannot be returned under any circumstances. She also has the right to kind treatment from her husband.

Still, one should not assume from the rights listed here that medieval Islamic society featured perfectly balanced gender roles. Women were still considered fertile fields to which men should go, menstruation was treated as an illness, two women were required in order to testify in legal proceedings in the place of one man, and a woman's inheritance was generally half of her brother's. Both men and women are required by the Qur'an to dress modestly, in order to be judged on the basis of character rather than appearance, and they must dress differently from unbelievers. For women, this includes the Hijab, which for some Muslim women covers the head and body except for eyes and hands, while for others covers only the hair. It seeks to ensure that a woman is not viewed as a sexual being by those other than her husband.

These basic tenets of gender roles are set out in the Qur'an, but as with many religions, the word of the holy scripture has not always been followed by those with political power. Women, for example, have not always been permitted their Qur'anic rights by Islamic regimes throughout history, just as gender roles in Christian, Jewish, Hindu, or other religions are not always carried out in everyday life.

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