Map One - Regional Approach

Canadian Shield

The Canadian Shield is covered by boreal forest of spruce, birch, pine, and fir. Plains and uplands, comprised of thin acidic soils, range from rolling to rugged terrain. Arctic air creates a climate with long, cold winters that are briefly broken by a short, cool summer. Permafrost is widespread in the northern areas. Raised beaches, bars, and spits create the terrain in the southern Hudson Bay coastal lowland areas.

Athapaskan or Dene peoples (for instance, the Chipewyan) and the Algonquians (Naskapi, Ojibwa, Cree, Ottawa (Odawa), Algonquin, and Innu or Montagnais) lived in the forested areas of the Canadian Shield. Family groups spread out in the boreal environment. Small population groupings were necessary due to limited access to food sources and as a means of avoiding overkill of animal species within hunting territories.

Seasonal movement necessitated transportable materials for dwellings. Domesticated dogs hauled belongings from camp to camp. The dwellings or wigwams were constructed from caribou or moose hides stretched across poles shaped into a hive structure. Inside the wigwam, belongings were stowed around the edges, just under the poles. All the space around the central hearth was covered with fir boughs to provide insulation against the damp ground. The boughs were covered with rush mats and fur bedding. In winter, to increase warmth, the eastern Cree cleared away the snow on the floor inside the shelter and they then hollowed out the soil to a depth of ten centimetres so that the living area was below the frost line.

The diverse food sources available in the Canadian Shield included large mammals, fish, fruit, and vegetables, which were hunted or gathered according to seasonal availability. Big game hunting required a co-operative effort. Groups of hunters would kill caribou, moose, beaver, and bear. Hunters stalked the animals then used spears, lances, and bows and arrows for the kill. Traps and snares were also used to capture animals. One of the most common traps was the log deadfall. When the animal tried to take the bait, the movement triggered a heavy log that fell on the animal's back, killing it at once. Hunters sometimes built extensive fences along woodland trails travelled by moose or deer. Snares were hidden in strategically placed gaps in the fence. The Naskapi hunted caribou with snares suspended along both natural and artificial trails. When the caribou's antlers became entangled, the animal was easily killed with spears or arrows. The snare, used to trap both large and small animals, was a kind of noose that caught the creature by the neck or leg. Snares were made either of animal sinew or babiche, a rawhide thong. Women snared small game with these leather traps. Geese were also a valued food source for Cree people. Geese were caught with nets and preserved by freezing in the open air.

The Ojibwa people caught fish in weirs, which were fences or barriers built in a stream so as to trap fish yet allow the water to flow through. These weirs were usually made of a latticework and brush. Ojibwa women dried and pounded sturgeon mixed with fish oil. This vitamin-rich mixture was ideal as a supplement to winter diets because it was edible for several months.

Plant growth was encouraged near living areas and was used in several different ways. The Iroquoians employed swidden agricultural practices (producing a temporary agricultural plot by cutting back and burning off vegetative cover), cultivating corn and pumpkin. Amongst the Algonquians, Ojibwa women collected wild rice and maintained rice stands. Consumed as solid food or in the form of tea, plants provided a year-round source of food. Plants were rich in vitamins and were gathered for medicinal and utilitarian purposes. Wintergreen, choke cherry, hemlock, sugar maple, sassafras, and sumac were dried and ground into tonics or preventative medicines. The Ojibwa, Cree, and Odawa all used the blueberry plant for medicinal purposes. The Ojibwa ground the leaves and used them as a medicinal tea and as a cure for headaches. Cree healers chewed fresh blueberry leaves and applied it to wounds. Odawa peoples brewed the leaves and used it as a healthy tonic.

Another use of local fauna was the use of birch tree bark for containers and canoes. Peoples of the Canadian Shield built birch bark canoes for travel and transportation on the numerous waterways of the region. A streamlined, wooden frame of a lightweight design was the first phase of manufacture. The strong, supple fibres of the birch tree were then stretched over the frame to create a pliable boat. Glue from sturgeon bladders was applied to the seams for a waterproof seal. The seams of the vessel were thoroughly waterproofed with a coating of heated spruce gum and grease. Easily carried on portage, the canoe could be readily repaired from materials available in the forest. Another important transportation device was the tumpline, a broad leather strap shaped like a sling. The wide loop of the sling was passed over the packer's forehead, while its two ends secured the pack itself so that it rested comfortably on a carrier's back.